Manifest Destiny: World Power Read online

  Queen Isabella conferred with her husband then spoke up: “Spain does not quarrel with the United States. President Lincoln has respected our sovereignty in Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Americans are profitable customers at Guantanamo Bay purchasing coal for their warships in gold coin. Their merchant's vessels maintain a highly profitable trade.

  We also respect their power in the region. After all, we all have the recent example of how easy the United States military expelled the Royal Navy from the Caribbean Basin. There is nothing but our continued good will which prevents them from snatching Cuba and Puerto Rico. We will not participate in any endeavor which places us in danger of American retribution.”

  Disraeli stood up and said to his guests: “I can’t believe you do not perceive the threat to us all of an aggressive United States. We will be plunged into an arms race to maintain our military forces to counterbalance their posture. Where do they advance next, into Africa?”

  Prince Frederick and Victoria were also conferring. With a nod from Frederick Victoria settled into her seat while Frederick spoke. “Mr. Prime Minister, the Americans are trying to rid themselves of their African inhabitants. It is highly unlikely they will want any adventures there. Their primary focus is likely to complete the conquest of Canada, followed by the subjugation of their Plains Indian tribes. Time is on their side.

  The United States Navy has just added three more of those behemoth ironclad warships, and the USS Stonewall has finished a refit. Do you have any vessels which can defeat them? In point of fact, all of our navies are now obsolete.

  We can learn from their example and build new and possibly better ships, but that accomplishment will take years.”

  Looking at Victoria who encouraged him with a bright smile, Frederick continued: “Currently, there is a narrow window of opportunity for Great Britain to obtain a negotiated settlement which might allow her to retain the Maritime Provinces. I can request that Prussia on behalf of the North German Confederation act as a mediator in establishing diplomatic channels. If you delay, it is likely Great Britain could lose all of Canada.”

  Disraeli looked around the room and only saw discouragement. He had high hopes for this meeting but now would have to convene his cabinet to determine another way forward. He stated: “Thank you all for attending and listening to me. I will take all of your advice into consideration.” Looking at Prince Frederick and Victoria he said: “I would appreciate confidentiality and the Crowns open to diplomatic resolutions.”

  March 30, 10 Downing St.

  Disraeli met with his cabinet and relayed the conversations he had with Napoleon III, Queen Isabella, and Crown Prince Frederick. With the knowledge that there would not be foreign allies in the war with the United States, the cabinet discussed available options.

  Disraeli began: Admiral Chadbourne has begun his offensive from Victoria, British Columbia. His instructions are to land forces to capture Seattle and control Puget Sound. His next objective is to bombard the forts in San Francisco Bay, seize the armory on Alcatraz Island and capture as much of the American merchant fleet as possible. It will be a raid but is meant to be punishing and disrupt any American plans on Victoria. Once that action completed, he is to establish a presence in Alaska where the American forces are too weak to defend the territory. He has been instructed to land forces at Sitka to enforce our claims.

  Our agents have been busy in Utah territory. They have been in contact with the Mormon leader Brigham Young. They have supplied him with thousands of weapons, disguised as wagon trains. When sufficiently armed, the Nauvoo Legion, which constitutes the principal defense force for the territory will revolt and destroy the United States forces in the region. We have no expectation the Legion will win independence, but they will constitute a significant diversion for American forces.

  We also have been busy in inciting the Plains Indians to rise. The rise will be coordinated and should cause major disruption. We expect, as with the Mormons, the risings to be put down harshly, but will divert large US military forces.”

  Lord Stanley spoke up and said: “How will these measures help us win this war?” Disraeli replied: “They will provide us time to develop other plans and may cause a war weariness to grow in the United States. That could give us a better position during any negotiations.”

  Admiral Sir John Pakington, the First Lord of the Admiralty then spoke up. “How do you propose to utilize the Royal Navy? Are we to convey more troops to Halifax, or are we to re-take Bermuda and our former Caribbean possessions? It is possible we might accomplish one of them, but to try both will likely lead to disaster on both fronts. We do not have anything afloat that can match up with those new double turreted ironclads. Our only chance is to overwhelm the ironclads with superior numbers. For any chance of success, we must concentrate our forces.”

  Disraeli asked: “What ships are available and where will they be drawn from”? Sir John responded. “HMS Achilles is already in Halifax and completed the repairs from the engagement in Boston. We can draw others equally from the Channel and Mediterranean fleets. The 40 gun armored frigates include HMS Warrior, HMS Black Prince and the 32 gun HMS Hector and HMS Valiant.

  There are four cut down 2-deck battleships available including HMS Agincourt, HMS Bellerophon, HMS Minotaur and HMS Northumberland. Those have 28 guns. All of those vessels have 4.5 inches of iron armor. There are five cut down former armored 2-deckers including HMS Prince Consort, HMS Royal Oak, HMS Caledonia and HMS Royal Alfred. They have 24 guns each and the armor is six inches.

  All are broadside ironclads. HMS Valiant and HMS Hector did not fare well against the more heavily armed and armored ironclad USS Stonewall. I am deeply concerned that any one on one engagement with the American twin turreted ironclads, equipped as they are with 20-inch guns would end disastrously for the Royal Navy. My other concern is that we are weakening our defenses against the French. If we disperse our fleets, our policy of being the Balance of Power will be affected. From what you reported, Napoleon III is not likely to join with us and on the contrary seems to relish in our discomfort.”

  Apparently displeased with Sir John’s assessment, Disraeli said: “Sir John that is a very bleak analysis. Just what do you propose?” Sir John answered:

  “Mr. Prime Minister, my assessment is bleak but honest. Last year I underestimated the strength of the American ironclads, and now the new ironclads are significantly stronger. We must realize that the Royal Navy warships are now obsolete. The Admiralty’s commitment to sailing ships firing from the broadside is handicapping our development of modern warships. After the Liberian disaster, Admiral Symonds wrote a letter urging steam powered turreted warships. However, the Admiralty are entrenched in power with considerable political support. Pressure needs to be applied to change their minds. To regain supremacy; we must immediately begin to build new turreted ships, with bigger guns and thicker armor. I have appointed Admiral Symonds as First Lord of the Admiralty, and he will coordinate that project. He has first-hand experience fighting the American ironclads and is committed to reasserting the supremacy of the Royal Navy.”

  However, if we are to attempt the relief of Halifax, I suggest we send troopships escorted by HMS Prince Consort, HMS Royal Oak, HMS Caledonia and HMS Royal Alfred. With their 6 inches of armor, they have the best chances of survival. The convoy must depart quickly; as soon the ice will be off the St Lawrence the Americans will move to Halifax and New Brunswick. If we lose those, the America’s will soon be free of British influence

  Disraeli then addressed Lord Chelmsford, the Chancellor and Secretary of War. “Lord Chelmsford, how many regiments can we send to Halifax and how soon will they be ready?”

  Lord Chelmsford replied. “To answer your question, there are ten regiments of Home Guards. They can be relieved by the soldiers who returned from Liberia. However, is this proposed course of action wise”? His frustration with the conversation was growing. Raising his voice, Chelmsford proposed a series of questions. “You want me to send
ten regiments to Halifax; where they have virtually no chance of success! Did you not just hear Sir John’s statement that the Royal Navy has obsolete ships? Have those ships any realistic chance of survival against the modern US Navy turreted ironclads? Can you assert with any confidence that the fleet will survive long enough reach Halifax”? After a drink of brandy to calm himself, Lord Chelmsford continued: “What about the troop ships; they will be utterly defenseless. I won’t do it. I will not send good men to die when there is so little chance of success.”

  Disraeli sent him a withering look and shouted back: “How dare you oppose us on this!! We cannot abandon the soldiers and loyal citizens waiting for us to rescue them in the Maritimes.”

  Lord Chelmsford shouted back: “Then let us rescue them by evacuation. Let the Royal Navy escort the troop ships and remove as many of the troops and loyal citizenry as possible; then repatriate the others following a peace agreement.”

  Disraeli derisively sneered: “What is there to negotiate with if we surrender it all without a fight. No, no, a thousand times no. An evacuation will be viewed as cowardly and will damage us much more than any possible defeat in battle.” Lord Chelmsford shook his head in disgust: “Do what you wish, but you will do it without me; I resign.” With that, he stalked out of the building.

  Lord Cairn was selected to replace Lord Chelmsford as Chancellor. He agreed to deploy the ten regiments to Halifax. The next two weeks were busy with transporting the regiments to London, loading them onto troop ships and gathering the Royal Navy warships.

  On April 14, 1868, the fleet of fifteen troop ships gathered at the Nore Shipyard. Commanding the fleet was Admiral David Peale, who had a long and distinguished service record. He summoned the fleet captains aboard his ironclad flagship HMS Warrior. He held a council of war to obtain his senior staff's opinion on the best route. There were three choices including the Downwind Route, the Tough Upwind Route and the Traditional and Favorable Route.

  The Downwind Route took the westerlies across the Atlantic towards Bermuda, then up the east coast of the United States. The Traditional route was the fastest, following the trade winds off the coast of Africa. The tough upwind route was the shortest, however, went against the wind and into high seas.

  After much discussion, Admiral Peale made his decision.

  With the next morning tide, the fleet departed from the Nore Naval Shipyard on the Thames Estuary for the usual three-week journey to Halifax. The fleet included the broadside ironclad battleships HMS Prince Consort, HMS Royal Oak, HMS Caledonia, HMS Agincourt and HMS Royal Alfred. There were also five steam frigates including the ironclads HMS Hector and HMS Valiant and ten sloops of war.

   Chapter 6

  Hampton Roads, April 20

  Admiral Porter summoned his captains to his office at the Navy Yard. He had a map on the wall highlighting the four options of sailing routes available to the Royal Navy. He walked over to the map with a pointer and began:

  “Gentlemen, as you can see, the Royal Navy has four options to sail to Halifax. Their broadside ironclads still depend largely on the sail for propulsion and must follow the favorable winds.

  Option one is the Northern Route skirting Iceland and Greenland, then south to Halifax. This time of year that would be very hazardous with icebergs and sea ice. I feel we can discount that route.

  The Tough Upwind route would mean weeks of extremely rough sailing, with an anticipated maximum speed of 5 knots. That would be hard enough on seasoned sailors, but debilitating to unseasoned soldiers who would need at least a week to recover. I feel that one is unlikely as it also fraught with danger from North Atlantic storms.

  The next two are equally possible. The Downwind Route leads directly to Bermuda, which I anticipate they would like to recapture. The big advantage of that route is that it is shorter and allows them to use the open ocean to conceal their presence.

  The Traditional Route offers the best wind support for a speedy voyage. Its primary disadvantage is that it is the most traveled route. That provides us with the biggest chance of locating their fleet from merchant ship sightings and by our patrol ships as their fleet skirts the Turks and Bahamas on their way up the east coast.

  My intentions are to post more patrol ships on the trade winds east of the Turks and Bahamas. I will station the main fleet at Bermuda with additional patrols to the east. That will allow us the best options of intercepting their fleet regardless of the route the Royal Navy takes.

  Gentlemen, your orders are waiting for you. Return to your ships, as we sail on the morning tide. My flag will be on USS Agamenticus.”

  USS Agamenticus re-fit with long guns 1868

  The next morning, after telegraphing Secretary Farragut his plans, Admiral Porter was in the pilot house of USS Agamenticus. At the beginning of the ebb tide, she led her sister ships USS Onondaga and USS Tecumseh; accompanied by ironclads USS Stonewall, USS Puritan and USS Dictator out of Hampton Roads. The fleet also consisted of five frigates and ten sloops of war. As they cleared the harbor into the Atlantic, one frigate and two sloops of war turned south to the Bahama Passage to augment the squadron based there.

  Admiral Porter signaled the steam sloops of war USS Kearsarge, USS Sacramento, and USS Pawnee to scout ahead and maintain station between 40 to 50 miles east of Bermuda.

  USS Agamenticus and the rest of the fleet set course for the former Royal Navy anchorages in Hamilton and St. Georges. At a distance of 618 nautical miles, the journey was anticipated to take three days. Admiral Perry ordered gunnery practice during the journey. After repeated drills, the new breech loaded long guns on Agamenticus could be re-loaded and fired three times per minute.

  April 22. - Watertown, New York.

  General Sherman received a telegraph from General Sweeney that the ice was breaking up in the St Lawrence. Sherman telegraphed Secretary Grant, then his field commanders to move the troops to their mustering stations in Watertown, Erie, and Columbus, Ohio. He also telegraphed Admiral Lee to move his fleet to the mustering stations to board the troops on the transports. Within five days, the fleet gathered at Watertown. Sherman boarded his troops and telegraphed Grant that he was beginning the five-day, 900-mile journey to Nova Scotia.

  Boston, Massachusetts.

  Chamberlain received a telegraph from Grant that Sherman was gathering his troops and fleet at Watertown and was expected to sail within one week. Chamberlain telegraphed his commanders in Portsmouth, Portland, Bangor, and Searsport to make final preparations to embark their troops and equipment. The soldiers arrived by railroads and lived in tent cities in the vicinity of the harbors. The day Sherman departed Watertown troops began to board the transports in Boston and Portsmouth. Two days later, the transports joined with Dahlgren’s naval fleet east of Portland and began the two-day journey to Halifax.

  April 30 - Searsport:

  The troops from Bangor sailed down the Penobscot River to Searsport and joined the transports from Portland. Commodore Treat, aboard his flagship USS Abenaki led his fleet along the coast of Maine and into the Bay of Fundy. The next day, Treat’s screen of sloops of war signaled that six Royal Navy warships were sailing to intercept them. Treat signaled for more information on the type of warships, then formed his ironclads in a line of battle, with Abenaki in the lead. He ordered the frigates and sloops to provide protection for the transports and to engage any Royal Navy ships that escaped his ironclads.

  40 Miles Southeast of Bermuda:

  Sunrise was a spectacular view by the two sailors on the main top of USS Kearsarge. The previous two days high seas had buffeted the ship as several squalls passed through the area. It was a relief to view two to three-foot seas and feel a brisk wind from the northeast. As the sun rose above the horizon what appeared at first to be a smudge became clearer.

  The lookout, after confirming with his partner shouted: “Sail Ho bearing 110 degrees east-southeast.”

  Captain Winslow put aside his breakfast, put on his uniform jacket grabbed his telescop
e and walked onto the quarter deck. Examining the distant sail by telescope, he ordered an intercept course and ordered signal flags aloft to alert USS Pawnee, which was 4 miles to the northwest and USS Independence which was 4 miles to the southwest. Both of his consorts signaled back that they were altering course to the east.

  Within an hour, the lookouts identified the distant ship as a Royal Navy sloop of war. Winslow ordered a converging course. Minutes later the main top lookouts shouted “Sails Ho, 120 degrees east-southeast.” Winslow ordered an Ensign a loft with a glass.

  Minutes later the Ensign reported: “Confirmed sighting of two sloops of war and one frigate. Numerous unidentified sails just on the horizon.”

  At that moment, Captain Winslow realized he had discovered the Royal Navy fleet. The only question was where they were heading. Winslow ordered signals to USS Pawnee to return to Bermuda to alert Admiral Porter. He signaled USS Independence to shadow the Royal Navy fleet from the south while he did the same from the north.